Ashutosh Arke
“Slavery is a denial of human rights. Caste is also a form of slavery which denies people their fundamental rights.” – Dr Babasaheb Ambedkar.
Caste-based labour exploitation in India is increasingly being equated with modern slavery due to the persistent, hereditary, and coercive nature of labour practices imposed on marginalized communities, particularly Dalits and Adivasis. Modern slavery, as defined by the International Labour Organization, encompasses situations of forced labour, debt bondage, and practices where people are unable to leave exploitative situations due to threats, coercion, or abuse of vulnerability. So, this Modern-day slavery in India is a deeply entrenched issue that cannot be fully understood without acknowledging its historical roots in the caste system. For centuries, caste-based hierarchies have dictated social status and occupational roles, systematically marginalizing certain communities, particularly Dalits and other minority groups, and subjecting them to exploitative labor practices akin to slavery. Despite legal reforms and constitutional safeguards aimed at eradicating such discrimination, the legacy of caste-based slavery persists in various modern forms, including bonded labor, human trafficking, forced domestic work, and child labor. This article explores the continuity between historical caste-based oppression and contemporary manifestations of slavery in India.
Caste as Captivity: Tracing the Roots of Institutionalised Slavery in Ancient India
The caste system in India has its roots in ancient Hindu scriptures like the Rig Veda, Arthashastra, and Manusmriti. The Purusha Sukta from the Rig Veda describes society as divided based on the body parts of a cosmic being: Brahmins (priests) came from the mouth, Kshatriyas (warriors) from the arms, Vaishyas (traders) from the thighs, and Shudras (laborers) from the feet. This idea created a divine justification for a strict social order. The Manusmriti reinforced this system by restricting the rights of Shudras, for example, it warned that even a hardworking Shudra should not be allowed to become wealthy, to maintain upper-caste dominance. Each caste had assigned roles: Brahmins were scholars and priests, Kshatriyas were rulers and soldiers, Vaishyas were traders and farmers, and Shudras were servants and laborers. These rules led to deep and long-lasting social inequality based on birth.
Slavery in India also has a long history and was closely tied to the caste system. Although slavery existed globally for over 11,000 years and was written into laws like the Code of Hammurabi in Mesopotamia, it became more common in India around 221 BCE. Despite Greek historian Megasthenes claiming slavery didn’t exist in India, Indian texts like the Mahabharata, Manusmriti, and Arthashastra clearly describe slave ownership and inheritance. Lower castes, especially Shudras, were often forced into slavery and harsh labor. Women and children were particularly vulnerable. The Devadasi system, which presented itself as a religious service, often acted as a form of sexual slavery, traces of which still exist today.
Slavery increased during the medieval period under Islamic rule, where many were enslaved during wars or for failing to pay taxes. Rulers like Mahmud of Ghazni and Allauddin Khilji captured and sold many people as slaves, including to the foreign markets. The Delhi Sultanate and Mughal Empire used slaves in homes, armies, and government.
During the colonial and early modern periods, child slavery and exploitation continued. Under the Zamindari system, entire families, including children, were forced into unpaid labor due to debt. European trading companies, such as the Dutch, used children in weaving and other manual work because they were cheap and easy to control. Across all these periods, caste and slavery remained closely connected, helping to maintain a system of social and economic oppression.
This historical continuum illustrates how slavery in India was not merely a product of foreign conquest but was deeply intertwined with indigenous customs, caste-based discrimination, and economic coercion. Despite legal abolition, the legacy of caste and bonded labor continues to manifest in modern forms of exploitation. This underscores the need for a critical examination of both the historical and contemporary systems of servitude in India.
Invisible Yet Essential: Dalit Labour and India’s Silent Slavery
The caste system in India has historically functioned not only as a social hierarchy but also as a rigid framework for economic roles and occupational opportunities. Rather than allowing individuals to adapt to evolving economic conditions, caste assigns predetermined occupations, privileging upper castes (often termed forward castes or Swarnas) with desirable roles, while relegating Scheduled Castes (SCs) and Scheduled Tribes (STs) to stigmatized and low-paying work. Occupations deemed “polluted,” such as manual scavenging, sanitation, leatherwork, and other forms of casual labor, are predominantly assigned to SCs, limiting their upward mobility and economic integration. As highlighted in the Strategy for New India @75 (NITI Aayog, 2018), SCs and STs face significantly higher poverty rates compared to other social groups, despite having higher labor force participation. Paradoxically, they also experience higher unemployment rates, revealing the systemic barriers to secure and dignified employment. This entrenched occupational stratification underscores the enduring socio-economic consequences of caste, which continues to shape access to resources, opportunities, and livelihoods in contemporary India.
The periodic labour force survey 2021-2022 shows that more than one-third of casual labour belongs to SCs, more than three-fourths of sanitation workers are SCs; they have a disproportionately higher share in low- paying jobs but a meagre share in professional businesses and higher paying white- collar jobs except public sector (PLFS 2021-22).
According to the Anti-Slavery International report, approximately 90% of bonded labourers in India belong to Scheduled Castes and minority communities. Structural economic disadvantages and limited access to resources significantly increase the reliance of Dalits on wage labour. Faced with extreme poverty, many Dalits are compelled to take out loans, with their labour often being the only collateral they can offer. These conditions, coupled with entrenched systems of social exclusion, frequently push Dalits into situations of bonded labour.
Recent data from a government survey conducted under the NAMASTE programme, as reported by The Hindu in September, highlights the stark caste-based disparities within India’s sanitation workforce. The findings reveal that approximately 92% of all workers profiled in the survey belong to marginalized communities—Scheduled Castes (SCs), Scheduled Tribes (STs), and Other Backward Classes (OBCs). In contrast, only around 8% of the workforce comes from General Category communities. This overwhelming representation of historically oppressed groups in sanitation-related occupations underscores the persistent linkage between caste and occupational stratification in India. The data serves as a contemporary reflection of deeply embedded social hierarchies, raising critical concerns about equity, dignity, and access to alternative livelihoods for marginalized communities.
This data should not be viewed merely as a statistical insight but as an urgent call to action. The exploitation and economic marginalization of SC, ST, and OBC workers are not accidental but rooted in historical caste-based oppression. Without systemic changes in policy, labour rights enforcement, education, and access to alternative livelihoods, India’s vision of inclusive development will remain hollow.
From Homes to Factories: The Systemic Exploitation of Dalit Women
Domestic workers in India, many of whom belong to SC, ST communities, continue to face severe exploitation and abuse, often working under conditions that align with the International Labour Organization’s (ILO) definition of “modern slavery.” These workers frequently earn below minimum wage, lack formal employment contracts, and endure excessive work hours without overtime pay or adequate rest. Physical and emotional abuse, including sexual harassment, forced labour, and human trafficking—especially of minors—remains rampant and largely underreported due to fear of retaliation and the absence of accessible legal protections.
Female domestic workers are particularly vulnerable to sexual exploitation, while placement agencies often charge exorbitant fees, offer little transparency, and fail to ensure fair wages or safe working conditions. Many workers are not informed about their rights, job responsibilities, or pay, further deepening their vulnerability.
The COVID-19 pandemic exacerbated these challenges. A 2020 study revealed that 57% of domestic workers in cities like Kochi, Delhi, and Mumbai reported facing discrimination, and 40% continued to work without basic safety measures. These conditions underscore the urgent need for stronger regulatory frameworks, labor protections, and enforcement mechanisms to uphold the rights and dignity of domestic workers in India.
“We’re made to work continuously, often through the night, sleeping at 3 am, then waking up by 5 am for another full day,” one woman said in an interview. “Our bosses don’t care. They’re only bothered about production.”
The above statement was made by women working in a garment factory in an interview given to the BBC. This situation highlights serious failures in law enforcement, workplace oversight, and corporate responsibility. It also reflects deeper social issues like caste and gender inequality that continue to affect India’s labour market.
Such exploitation cannot be seen as a side effect of industrial growth. It is a result of weak regulations and, lack of accountability.
Freedom Denied: Curse of Bonded Labour
According to the Ministry of Labour & Employment’s Vision Document (2016), an estimated 84 crore individuals are trapped in bonded labour arrangements—a staggering number that reflects the scale and persistence of the problem. Despite the gravity of the issue, progress in rescue and rehabilitation has been limited. Between 2016 and 2021, only 12,760 individuals were officially rescued and rehabilitated, as reported by the Ministry in a 2021 reply to Parliament.
The labour market in India is overwhelmingly informal, with the unorganised sector accounting for 39 crore workers out of a total 47 crore workforce, based on the NSSO 2023 data. This unregulated segment of the economy is where bonded labour is most prevalent, as workers lack legal protections, stable incomes, and access to grievance mechanisms.
Caste and social identity play a central role in this exploitation. Multiple state-level studies have shown that over 80% of bonded labourers belong to Scheduled Castes (SC), Scheduled Tribes (ST), and Other Backward Classes (OBC)—communities that have historically faced social exclusion, economic marginalisation, and systemic discrimination.
On the global stage, India ranks among the top countries with the highest number of people living in conditions of modern slavery, as reported by the Global Slavery Index. These figures point to a deeply rooted socio-economic problem that is both structural and systemic, demanding stronger enforcement of labour laws, more robust rehabilitation frameworks, and targeted social justice interventions.
The Laws We Have But Rarely See in Action
India has a legal and constitutional framework against labour exploitation and upholds the dignity of workers. The Constitution of India lays the foundation for these protections through its Fundamental Rights (Chapter III) and Directive Principles of State Policy (Chapter IV). Articles 16, 19, 23, and 24 prohibit discrimination in public employment, ensure freedom of association, and explicitly ban forced and child labour. Complementing these are Directive Principles under Articles 39, 41, 42, 43, 43A, and 54, which mandate just and humane working conditions, adequate livelihood, maternity relief, and the participation of workers in industrial management.
To implement these constitutional ideals, several laws have been enacted:
Laws Against Exploitation:
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- The Bonded Labour System (Abolition) Act, 1976, abolishes all forms of bonded labour.
- The Child Labour (Prohibition and Regulation) Act, 1986, prohibits the employment of children in hazardous occupations and regulates conditions of work.
- The Contract Labour (Regulation and Abolition) Act, 1970 protects the rights of contract labourers by regulating their employment conditions.
- The Equal Remuneration Act, 1976 mandates equal pay for men and women performing the same or similar work, preventing wage-based discrimination.
Laws Related to Wages:
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- The Payment of Wages Act, 1936, ensures the timely disbursement of wages without unlawful deductions.
- The Minimum Wages Act, 1948, sets minimum wage thresholds across industries and regions.
- The Payment of Bonus Act, 196,5 provides for the annual payment of bonuses based on productivity and profits.
- The Working Journalists (Fixation of Rates of Wages) Act, 1958, determines fair wage structures for journalists.
Laws on Working Hours, Service Conditions, and Employment:
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- Laws such as the Factories Act, 1948, Plantation Labour Act, 1951, Mines Act, 1952, and Motor Transport Workers Act, 1961 regulate work hours, health and safety, and living conditions for workers in various sectors.
- The Working Journalists and Other Newspaper Employees (Conditions of Service and Miscellaneous Provisions) Act, 1955, and the Merchant Shipping Act, 1958 further detail service terms, rest periods, and welfare provisions in their respective domains.
Laws for Equality and Women’s Empowerment:
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- The Maternity Benefit Act, 1961, ensures paid maternity leave and safeguards the employment of pregnant women.
- The Equal Remuneration Act, 1976, besides combating exploitation, serves as a key instrument in empowering women through wage equality.
Conclusion
The enduring legacy of caste-based slavery continues to shape India’s contemporary labour landscape, manifesting in various forms of exploitation and systemic discrimination. Despite legal prohibitions, practices such as manual scavenging, bonded labour, and child labour remain prevalent, disproportionately affecting Dalits and other marginalized communities. These forms of labour are not merely economic issues but are deeply entrenched in the social fabric, perpetuating cycles of poverty and inequality.
The persistence of caste-based exploitation underscores the inadequacy of current labour reforms that fail to address the root cause: caste discrimination. Without confronting this foundational issue, efforts to eradicate modern-day slavery and exploitation will remain incomplete.
References
International Dalit Solidarity Network (IDSN). (n.d.). Caste-based slavery. Retrieved May 29, 2025, from https://idsn.org/key-issues/caste-based-slavery/
Hossaina, M. A., & Sultanaa, S. (n.d.). Unraveling the history of slavery in ancient Indian society.
Fatima, Z., & Roy, S. (n.d.). The enslaved: A historical scrutinization of slavery in India. Second year students, Bachelors in Geography, Banaras Hindu University.
Anti-Slavery International. (2019). Bonded Labour in India: A Persistent Challenge.
BBC News. (2020). Inside India’s Garment Factories: Women’s Voices on Exploitation and Abuse.
Thorat, S., & Newman, K. S. (2010). Blocked by Caste: Economic Discrimination in Modern India. Oxford University Press.
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Ashutosh Arke is an HR professional based in Chhatrapati Sambhajinagar. He holds a Master’s degree in Social Work with a specialization in Human Resource Management from Pondicherry University.
